What is the difference between footnotes and endnotes?

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page. Endnotes appear in a list at the end of the text, just before the reference list or bibliography. Don’t mix footnotes and endnotes in the same document: choose one or the other and use them consistently.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style, you can use either footnotes or endnotes, and citations follow the same format in either case.

In APA and MLA style, footnotes or endnotes are not used for citations, but they can be used to provide additional information.

Frequently asked questions: Chicago Style

Which contributors should I mention in a Chicago film citation?: The director should always be listed in the author position in a Chicago film citation, followed by the label “director.” Other contributors to the film (actors, cinematographers, writers, composers, producers, etc.) may be listed after the film title, e.g., “Featuring Willem Dafoe and Robert Pattinson. Cinematography by Jarin Blaschke.”

Only the contributors relevant to your discussion of the film should be added. You might mention actors whose performances are discussed in detail, or the composer if the use of music in the film is examined. It’s also fine to mention no contributors other than the director, if none are relevant to your discussion.
How do I cite a source with no page numbers in Chicago style?: In Chicago style, when a source does not include page numbers but you still want to point the reader to a specific point within it, an alternative locator should be used in your Chicago footnote or Chicago in-text citation. With audiovisual sources (e.g., films, videos, podcasts, songs), this is a timestamp, e.g. 1:15:28.

Webpages are usually short enough that no specific locator is needed. However, for a particularly long web page, you can use a subheading from the page, in quotation marks, e.g., “Citing Sources with Notes.”

Note that page numbers should be left out of newspaper citations, even when they are available. This is because page numbers can vary between different editions of a newspaper.

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator.
How do I include an image in my paper in Chicago style?: In Chicago style, when you don’t just refer to an image but actually include it in your (research) paper, the image should be formatted as a figure. Place the figure before or after the first paragraph where it is mentioned. Refer to figures by their numbers in the text (e.g., “see fig. 1”).

Below the figure, place a caption providing the figure number followed by a period (e.g., “Figure 1.”), a reference to the source (if you didn’t create the image yourself), and any relevant information to help the reader understand the image (if needed).

The caption is single-spaced and left-aligned, and followed by a blank line before the continuation of the main text.

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator.
How do I cite a source with multiple authors in Chicago style?: In a Chicago style footnote, list up to three authors. If there are more than three, name only the first author, followed by “et al.”

In the bibliography, list up to 10 authors. If there are more than 10, list the first seven followed by “et al.”

Full note Short note Bibliography

2 authors Anna Burns and Robert Smith Burns and Smith Burns, Anna, and Robert Smith.

3 authors Anna Burns, Robert Smith, and Judith Green Burns, Smith, and Green Burns, Anna, Robert Smith, and Judith Green.

4+ authors Anna Burns et al. Burns et al. Burns, Anna, Robert Smith, Judith Green, and Maggie White.

The same rules apply in Chicago author-date style.

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator.
How do I cite a source with no date in Chicago style?: When an online source does not list a publication date, replace it with an access date in your Chicago footnotes and your bibliography:

Example: Chicago bibliography entry with access date
Scribbr. “How to Write a Research Paper.” Accessed June 9, 2020. https://www.scribbr.com/category/research-paper/.

If you are using author-date in-text citations, or if the source was not accessed online, replace the date with “n.d.”

Example: Chicago author-date citation with no date
(Scribbr, n.d.)

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator.
How do I cite a source with no author in Chicago style?: In a Chicago footnote citation, when the author of a source is unknown (as is often the case with websites), start the citation with the title in a full note. In short notes and bibliography entries, list the organization that published it as the author.

Type Example

Full note 1. “An Introduction to Research Methods,” Scribbr, accessed June 11, 2020, https://www.scribbr.com/category/methodology/.

Short note 2. Scribbr, “Research Methods.”

Bibliography Scribbr. “An Introduction to Research Methods.” Accessed June 11, 2020. https://www.scribbr.com/category/methodology/.

In Chicago author-date style, treat the organization as author in your in-text citations and reference list.

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator.
What font should I use in a Chicago style paper?: Chicago format doesn’t require you to use any specific font, as long as you choose something readable. A good standard choice is 12 pt Times New Roman.
What is the difference between a Chicago reference list and a bibliography?: A reference list is used with Chicago author-date citations.

A bibliography is used with Chicago footnote citations.

Both present the exact same information; the only difference is the placement of the year in source citations:

In a reference list entry, the publication year appears directly after the author’s name.

In a bibliography entry, the year appears near the end of the entry (the exact placement depends on the source type).

There are also other types of bibliography that work as stand-alone texts, such as a Chicago annotated bibliography.
What is Turabian style?: Turabian style is a version of Chicago style designed specifically for students and researchers. It follows most Chicago conventions, but also adds extra guidelines for formatting research papers, theses and dissertations.

More information can be found in A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations by Kate L. Turabian, now in its ninth edition.
Do I have to include a bibliography or reference list?: In Chicago author-date style, your text must include a reference list. It appears at the end of your paper and gives full details of every source you cited.

In notes and bibliography style, you use Chicago style footnotes to cite sources; a bibliography is optional but recommended. If you don’t include one, be sure to use a full note for the first citation of each source.
Should I use short notes or full notes for my Chicago citations?: In Chicago notes and bibliography style, the usual standard is to use a full note for the first citation of each source, and short notes for any subsequent citations of the same source.

However, your institution’s guidelines may differ from the standard rule. In some fields, you’re required to use a full note every time, whereas in some other fields you can use short notes every time, as long as all sources are listed in your bibliography. If you’re not sure, check with your instructor.
When should I use “et al.” in Chicago style citations?: When a source has four or more authors, your in-text citation or Chicago footnote should give only the first author’s name followed by “et al.” (Latin for “and others”). This makes your citations more concise.

In your bibliography or reference list, when a source has more than 10 authors, list the first seven followed by “et al.” Otherwise, list every author.
When should I include page numbers in Chicago style citations?: Page numbers should be included in your Chicago in-text citations when:

You’re quoting from the text.

You’re paraphrasing a particular passage.

You’re referring to information from a specific section.

When you’re referring to the overall argument or general content of a source, it’s unnecessary to include page numbers.

	Full note	Short note	Bibliography
2 authors	Anna Burns and Robert Smith	Burns and Smith	Burns, Anna, and Robert Smith.
3 authors	Anna Burns, Robert Smith, and Judith Green	Burns, Smith, and Green	Burns, Anna, Robert Smith, and Judith Green.
4+ authors	Anna Burns et al.	Burns et al.	Burns, Anna, Robert Smith, Judith Green, and Maggie White.

Type	Example
Full note	1. “An Introduction to Research Methods,” Scribbr, accessed June 11, 2020, https://www.scribbr.com/category/methodology/.
Short note	2. Scribbr, “Research Methods.”
Bibliography	Scribbr. “An Introduction to Research Methods.” Accessed June 11, 2020. https://www.scribbr.com/category/methodology/.

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